At the 1900 Paris World’s Fair, which became a triumph of Russian industry and culture, astonished visitors admired not only the watercolor panorama of the Trans-Siberian Railway (950 metres long!), the openwork Kasli casting, and the map of France made from Ural gemstones. They were equally captivated by the unprecedented ancient Russian costumes from Natalia Shabelskaya’s collection, displayed on mannequins amid artifacts of Russian antiquity. This was a Russia foreignershad never seen before.

Precursor to Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes and the famous Romanov costume ball

Many are surely familiar with the photographs from the famous 1903 costume ball at the Winter Palace - the most celebrated masquerade ball of imperial Russia. All the courtiers were instructed to attend the event in Russian attire from the pre-Petrine era. The result was the spectacle of extraordinary opulence and beauty - truly fairytale-like. Emperor Nicholas II chose a costume based on designs depicting the garments of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, yet many of the pieces he wore were authentic, delivered from the Kremlin Armoury; his wife was dressed as Tsarina Maria Miloslavskaya.

The Winter Palace filled with boyars and boyarynyas, falconers, stolniks, and voyevodas. The requirements for the costumes were extremely strict - no artistic license was allowed; only authentic attire from that era would do. As a result, the ball became not merely an extraordinary spectacle but something akin to a unique work of art. The photographs capturing the event’s guests continue to evoke fascination and admiration for the remarkable beauty of the Russian costumes. Incidentally, the well-known deck of cards Russian Style, which many of us used to play with as children, reproduces the costumes from this very ball.

And in a sense, Natalia Shabelskaya had a hand in all of this. She was the first to collect and study objects of ancient Russian daily life and clothing. In the Museum of Antiquities she founded, more than 20,000 items were gathered! One could say that her collection, which drew admiration from audiences at exhibitions in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Chicago, Antwerp, and, of course, Paris, became the precursor to both the immense popularity of Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes and that famous Romanov costume ball. She was the one who ushered in the fashion for the Russian style.

Natalia Leonidovna Shabelskaya was born in 1841 in Taganrog into a family of Russified German nobles, the Kronenbergs. She received an excellent home education and later graduated with a gold medal from the Kharkov Women’s Institute. At the age of seventeen, she married Pyotr Shabelsky, one of the wealthiest landowners in Kharkov Province. Passionate about needlework since childhood, she opened a workshop on her husband’s estate, where she gathered fourteen talented embroideresses.

After the birth of their third daughter, the family moved to Moscow, where they could provide the children with a good education. Natalia Leonidovna’s interest in embroidery quickly grew into a fascination with folk art in general. Fortunately, she became part of the Moscow circle of antiquarians and collectors who cherished the old ways. The well-known collector and patron of the arts Alexei Bakhrushin, a frequent guest at the Shabelskys’ home, wrote about her embroidery workshop: “She creates works using ancient Russian stitches and traditional patterns solely out of love for art. The items produced in this way find their way to the Imperial Court and are given as gifts to close friends.”

In the late 1870s, a series of tragic events struck Shabelskaya’s life: one after another, she lost her eldest daughter, her mother, her sister, and her husband.

Perhaps in order not to break down and to avoid leaving her two remaining daughters as orphans, she threw herself headlong into her fascination with Russian antiquities. This passion was further fuelled by a journey she took with her daughters along the Volga River, during which they visited the famous Nizhny Novgorod Fair. The works of unknown Russian craftswomen from all over the vast country, their artistic taste, intricate handcraft techniques, and traditional patterns captivated Shabelskaya. They awakened in her a sincere desire not only to introduce this beauty to the upper circles of Russian society but also to preserve these masterpieces of ancient Russian art for future generations.

20,000 unique items of Russian antiquity

From this moment on, Natalia Leonidovna became a passionate and tireless collector. In search of items that interested her, she travelled to the Russian North, the Volga region, Crimea, the southern provinces, and the central regions of the Russian Empire. The problem was that the most valuable examples of Russian antiquities were being exported abroad in large quantities, while many others were simply burned by rag-and-bone men to extract the gold and silver embroidery. As a result, priceless patterns and the artefacts themselves were disappearing without a trace, as Shabelskaya noted in one of her letters.

And yet, over several decades she managed to assemble a truly unique collection of Russian folk art and everyday objects. At the heart of her collection was the traditional Russian costume: kaftans, half-kaftans, sarafans, shirts, dushegreys (short sleeveless jackets), and epanchas (long cloaks). She had no fewer than three hundred women's headpieces alone: povyazki, perevyazki, crowns, wedding koruny, kichki, nachelniki, soroki, povoiki, and numerous types of kokoshniks adorned with pearls and mother-of-pearl. There were also shawls, veils, and scarves, including gold-woven and gold-embroidered pieces from various Russian provinces, each distinguished by its own decorative features.

Shabelskaya’s collection also included all types of ancient Russian sewing and lace-making: silk embroidery, embroidery on canvas, embroidery on perevit, gold embroidery, and many other stitching techniques. However, her collection went far beyond clothing. It encompassed icons, antique caskets in which women once kept their jewels, the jewellery itself, and pieces of antique furniture from the women’s quarters of traditional homes - small needlework tables, mirrors with stands, and chests of drawers.

The collection of Natalia Shabelskaya was first presented in its most complete form at an exhibition in St. Petersburg held in aid of those suffering from the crop failure. The exhibition was visited by the art critic and historian Vladimir Vasilyevich Stasov, who highly praised Shabelskaya’s artistic taste, her knowledge, and her significance for Russian culture. Stasov left a brilliant review of the exhibition, in which he wrote: “Everything at this exhibition delights me: the collection of superb works created by the ancient Russian woman, the extraordinary female initiative, the remarkable knowledge shown by a modern Russian woman, and the exceptional energy of the collector who devoted twenty years of her life to gather from every corner of Russia and unite in her museum the examples of artistic labour and domestic creativity of countless generations of ancient Russian women.” He called Shabelskaya a representative of a new generation of women who “clearly feel what our nationality is, passionately love it, and have devoted their entire lives to its service.”

Hand-coloured black-and-white photograph.
A woman in a folk costume from Nizhny Novgorod province.
Late 19th – early 20th century.

Then, in the early 1890s, Natalia Shabelskaya opened a rich and varied "Museum of Antiquities" in her Moscow mansion on the corner of Sadovaya and Bronnaya streets. She also began actively exhibiting her collection both at home and abroad - at the Chicago Exhibition in 1893, in Antwerp in 1894, and at the Paris World's Fair in 1900.

Interestingly, Shabelskaya seemed to have grasped, earlier than anyone else, what would soon become - if not a fashion - then a serious passion of the Russian nobility. Since the reforms of Peter the Great, the Russian elite had become accustomed to looking exclusively to European models for their tastes. The distinctive and unique nature of Russian culture was known only to a few scholars such as Lomonosov and to great figures of Russian culture like Pushkin.

However, everything changed when Alexander III ascended the throne in 1881. For the first time, the Russian tsar began to actively promote the national style in all its forms - in painting, architecture, and even in restaurant cuisine. Alexander III acquired around a thousand works by Russian artists, primarily the Wanderers (the Peredvizhniki). For Konstantin Makovsky’s painting «The Appearance of Christ before the People», which he particularly patronized, he paid the enormous sum (for that time) of 15,000 silver roubles. The historian Vasily Klyuchevsky wrote that Alexander “encouraged and elevated Russian historical thought and Russian national consciousness.” Thus, Natalia Shabelskaya’s collection found favour at court in the broadest sense of the word.

But her activities were not limited to collecting alone. As if anticipating the tragic events that would soon befall Russia, Natalia Shabelskaya decided to undertake the photographic documentation of her collection. Both of her daughters - Natalia and Varvara - assisted her in this endeavour. They photographed the embroideresses from Shabelskaya’s workshop wearing traditional Russian costumes, posed as models themselves, and then hand-coloured the photographs so that future viewers could appreciate all the nuances of the ancient Russian style. This photographic collection of 175 images became a unique source in its own right for the history of Russian costume. Importantly, the majority of it - 118 photographs - remained in Russia and is now preserved in the archive of the Russian Ethnographic Museum. Incidentally, on 18 April an exhibition from the series “The Russians. The Birth of Identity” opens there, featuring items including pieces from Shabelskaya’s collection.

After the death of the collection’s founder, her daughters did everything possible to ensure that the unique exhibits would not be lost, but instead become part of a museum’s heritage. Almost immediately after their mother’s death in 1904, the Shabelsky sisters approached the Ethnographic Department of the Russian Museum in St. Petersburg with a proposal to acquire the collection, which included items of women’s clothing, headdresses, lace, objects made of wood and bone, as well as jewellery made of pearls and beads. Part of the collection (1,478 pieces) was donated by the sisters to the museum, while a further 2,596 were purchased by Emperor Nicholas II for 40,000 gold roubles, to be paid in instalments over five years, and then presented to the Russian Museum.

«A terrible longing for home is suffocating us»

After the 1917 Revolution, the sisters initially chose different paths. Varvara emigrated to France with her family, while Natalia remained in Moscow, where she worked at the Central restoration workshops under the artist Igor Grabar. However, in 1925 she left for Nice, where she joined her sister. A part of their mother’s collection also remained in Nice, as she had spent her final years in this coastal city.

The sisters earned their living by creating, from their own sketches, Russian-style dress trimmings for the collections of the famous Parisian couturier Paul Poiret. They hoped they might still return to their homeland and even bring out the remaining part of the collection. At least, this is what one of the sisters, Natalia, wrote to Igor Grabar: “A terrible longing for home is suffocating us and gives us no peace. We would undoubtedly like to return to Moscow.” But these dreams were never to come true. The sisters passed away one after the other shortly after the outbreak of the Second World War.

Part of their foreign collection was sold to the United States, while another part remained with a long-time family friend. In 1988, these items were bought by the Russian émigré Pavel Tolstoy-Miloslavsky, who in 1991 donated them to the All-Russian Museum of Decorative Art.

Today, these objects and photographs inspire wonder and admiration for their elegance and the complexity of their workmanship, reaffirming the words of Natalia Shabelskaya: “In all the surviving monuments of embroidery - ancient, worn, and seemingly outworn - there is a living force: the force of beauty and individual creativity.”

The international humanitarian project “Rising Stars”, aimed at promoting the Russian language and culture as well as at the international apprizing of Russian education in creative schools. The project is being carried out by the Russkiy Mir Foundation in cooperation with the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory. Students from the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory - Maria Modeme (soprano), Maria Sokolova (flute) and Elena Saakyan (piano) - captivated audiences across African countries in spring 2026.

Benin

On 16th March, with the support of the Russian Embassy in Cotonou, participants in the “Rising Stars” project - students of the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory - conducted a masterclass for students of the Department of Music and Dramatic Arts at the Institute of Arts, Archaeology and Culture of the University of Abomey-Calavi (UAC), Benin’s largest higher education institution.

During the session, the Russian musicians demonstrated piano and flute techniques as well as vocal methods to the Beninese students.

At the end of the masterclass, the student orchestra of the Department of Music and Dramatic Arts of UAC performed for the artists of the Moscow Conservatory.

On 17th March, a concert entitled “Masterpieces of Russian and Foreign Music” took place at the Chinese Cultural Centre in Cotonou with the participation of students of the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory.

Maria Modeme, Maria Sokolova and Elena Saakyan performed works by P. I. Tchaikovsky, S. V. Rachmaninoff, A. A. Alyabyev, foreign classical composers, as well as several Russian folk songs.

The concert was attended by a delegation from the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Arts of Benin, officials of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Benin, ambassadors of friendly countries, Beninese public figures, members of the media and business groups, and Russian compatriots.

In his welcoming address, the Russian Ambassador to Cotonou, I. D. Evdokimov, expressed gratitude to the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory and the Russkiy Mir Foundation for sending Russian performers to Benin:

“The classical music concert in Cotonou featuring young musicians from the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory has become a fine tradition of Russian-Beninese cooperation. For the third year running, it has brought together Russian and Beninese friends around the great musical culture. I am confident that today’s performance will be a highlight of the city’s cultural life and will give all of us unforgettable impressions.”

As the concert ended, a friendly reception was held, during which guests were offered traditional dishes of Russian cuisine.

Nigeria

On 20th March, a classical music concert performed by Russian musicians took place in Abuja as part of the “Rising Stars” project. The audience enjoyed works by S. V. Rachmaninoff, P. I. Tchaikovsky, I. M. Luchenko and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov that evening.

More than 250 guests in attendance were welcomed by the Russian Ambassador, A. L. Podelyshev. He noted that music unites people, strengthens trust and mutual understanding.

The Russian artists' tour programme traditionally includes not only performances but also educational events. A masterclass featuring the Russian musicians took place at the Abba Music School, where they shared their experience and technique with the students of the music centre. The Russians and Nigerians performed several classical and contemporary works together, as well as improvised in mixed ensembles. The following day, on 21th March, a friendly meeting took place at the University of Lagos between students of the Moscow Conservatory and Nigerian students studying the Russian language. The event was attended by around 30 students and lecturers.

“The students are very gifted, talented, and inquisitive. They are ready to acquire new knowledge, which is highly valuable to them. They ask about playing technique and vocal technique. We show them, we explain, and they grasp it very quickly and apply the skill. They are also interested in our Russian education - what higher education institutions we have, what competitions exist, whether there are student exchange programmes, and whether there is an opportunity to study in Russia and what is required for that,” shared Russian project participant Maria Modeme.

Angola

From 24th to 26th March 2026, a series of musical events was organized in Luanda with the active support of the Russian Embassy as part of the "Rising Stars" project, featuring a trio of female students from the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory.

On the first day of the tour, a concert took place attended by members of the Government of the Republic of Angola, including Secretary of State for Education P. Francisco and Secretary of State for Local Government F. Manuel, senior officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Culture, heads of diplomatic missions, public figures, compatriots, journalists, and graduates of Soviet and Russian universities.

In his welcoming address, the Chargé d’Affaires of the Russian Federation in Angola, A. E. Bryantsev, spoke about the potential of the Russkiy Mir Foundation and emphasised the importance of musical diplomacy as one of the key areas for developing humanitarian cooperation between the two countries.

The audience was presented with works by the great Russian classics: P. I. Tchaikovsky, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov and S. V. Rachmaninoff.

The event received extensive coverage in the local media.

On 25th March, the project participants conducted masterclasses for Angolan musicians, who in turn noted the high demand for this kind of professional mentorship.

The “Rising Stars” project also visited the Kapossoka Music School, whose best graduates have studied at specialised Russian universities. The Angolan musicians performed a number of works of Russian classical music as well as several popular national songs.

The trio members commended the skill level of the local musicians and wished them further creative success.

The culmination of the series of performances was the final gala concert for the general public. The world-famous Soviet songs “Podmoskovnye Vechera” (“Moscow Nights”) and “Katyusha” were performed as an encore.

A live broadcast took place on the “Russkiy Mir” TV channel with the Foundation’s Executive Director, Tatyana Shlychkova, on 7th April. She summed up the results of 2025, spoke about new projects, and answered questions from viewers in China, Colombia, Australia, Italy, and other countries.

In conditions of sanctions pressure, logistical restrictions, and a targeted campaign to “cancel” Russian culture, the Foundation has not only maintained but also expanded its global presence. 912 supported projects, 300 foreign guests from 105 countries at the Russkiy Mir Assembly, the launch of multilingual content and the establishment of the first Vitaly Kostomarov Prize in the history of the Foundation - these and other points formed the basis of a frank hour-and-a-half dialogue.

Opening the meeting, Tatyana Shlychkova highlighted the main innovation: from now on, live broadcasts with the Foundation’s leadership will become regular. “They will allow us to maintain a constant exchange of information, respond promptly and adjust our plans,” she explained. For an organisation accustomed to working through diplomatic channels and academic conferences, this step represents a shift in its communication paradigm. Monologue is giving way to dialogue. The first attempt proved successful: given the volume and geographical diversity of the questions received (from China, Serbia, Uzbekistan, Colombia and Australia), the new format is indeed in demand.

Figures and meanings: results of 2025

The main quantitative result is that in 2025 the Foundation supported 912 projects and events across the world. This is significantly more than the previous year. This was achieved under conditions in which logistics and financial transactions had become “challenging”, as the Executive Director carefully phrased it. The qualitative breakthrough concerns geography. The Russkiy Mir Assembly brought together 300 guests from 105 countries. Moreover, the composition of participants has changed fundamentally. Previously, the Foundation’s audience consisted mainly of those who already spoke Russian. Now the focus is on those who do not yet speak Russian but are ready to develop humanitarian cooperation with Russia. “Not only those who already know the Russian language, but also those who simply wish to develop humanitarian cooperation with Russia should take part in the Foundation’s key events,” emphasised Tatyana Shlychkova.

The Foundation has launched a major content translation programme precisely for this audience. English and French are already up and running. Spanish will launch in the second half of the year, with Arabic planned after that. The Foundation’s information resources are transforming from a national archive into a global multilingual platform.

Among other achievements of the past year are the expansion of the network of language camps, professional skill competitions for teachers of Russian as a foreign language, and systematic work with translators. “The translation of Russian literature into foreign languages and the high-quality work of translators means conveying accurate and reliable information,” - summarised Tatyana Shlychkova.

For the first time in the Foundation’s history, a final declaration was adopted following the 2025 Assembly. The document proved to be extensive, as it incorporated the 'long-standing concerns' of many years. “Undoubtedly, the declaration contains a great many questions whose resolution falls within the competence of state bodies: the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Culture, and Rossotrudnichestvo,” - explained the Executive Director. The Russkiy Mir Foundation does not act as a substitute for the state but rather serves as an operator and catalyst. Nevertheless, several key points were successfully implemented independently.

A system of incentives and recognition has been established. The Lyudmila Verbitskaya Scholarship for foreign students studying Russian philology in Russia has been introduced. And most importantly, the Russkiy Mir Foundation has instituted the Vitaly Kostomarov Award for contribution to international Russian studies. “We now have the very tool that allows us to recognise the achievements of our respected colleagues - foreign teachers, specialists in Russian philology, and translators,” - stated T. V. Shlychkova. The first laureates will be announced at the end of 2026.

A programme of internships and creative internships for foreign translators of Russian literature has been launched. The Foundation has signed agreements with the Moscow State Linguistic University (MSLU), the Higher School of Translation and Interpreting at Lomonosov Moscow State University, and the Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia. This year, 10 to12 foreign translators will be accepted for internships at Moscow State University.

The implementation of joint educational programmes for journalists has commenced. The first group of foreign journalists will go to the base of the Journalism Department at Irkutsk State University. “If everything goes well, we will expand the programme next year,” - promised Tatyana Shlychkova.

Books and teaching materials: how to gain support

Answering a question about the supply of literature, Tatyana Shlychkova clarified the principles of the Foundation’s work in this area. The Foundation does not have ready-made sets of books and textbooks for mass distribution. “We focus on your specific request,” - she emphasised. Partners are invited to select the necessary literature themselves from three main publishers specialising in Russian as a Foreign Language (RFL). The Foundation purchases works of fiction according to specific titles. Various channels are used for delivery: from the assistance of diplomatic missions to air cargo. Furthermore, the Foundation continues to connect organisations to the electronic library for Russian as a foreign language.

Sanctions and attempts to cancel Russian culture

During the broadcast, the issue of working under conditions of sanctions pressure and attempts to “cancel everything Russian” was raised. Tatyana Shlychkova reminded viewers that the Foundation itself is under sanctions from unfriendly countries, and that the financing of projects has become more complicated and requires more time and effort. Nevertheless, the strategy remains unchanged. “No matter how much one tries to prohibit something, the real thing will still be in demand. Our language, our culture and our literature are part of world culture,” - she stated.

The emphasis has shifted towards cultural and educational projects: Russian language festivals, art competitions, and children’s camps with a language component. These formats are difficult to prohibit because they are in demand by ordinary people - even in unfriendly countries. As an example, Shlychkova cited the “Romansiada” and “Rising Stars” projects, which draw audiences in the Balkans, Europe and Africa.

Work in Central Asia

Priority areas cooperation with Central Asian countries were discussed during the broadcast. In Kyrgyzstan, for instance, the Russian language holds official status alongside Kyrgyz, which creates a solid foundation for work.

Among the key areas is the professional development of teachers of Russian as a foreign language, which can be conducted either locally or online, as well as through visits to Russia. The second area is Russian language instruction: online courses from leading Russian universities, classes held at Russian centres, and specialised courses - for instance, employees of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Serbia, at the request of the Serbian side. The third area is the “Professor of the Russian World” programme, under which a highly qualified expert is sent to a foreign university for two to three weeks. T. V. Shlychkova clarified that a “professor” is not limited to philologists. Under the programme, specialists in geological exploration, nuclear energy, or creative disciplines may also take part provided this leads to increased interest in the Russian language and culture. However, specialists in Russian language and literature receive considerably greater support, “because this is our main task and primary goal,” - she stressed.

Moreover, an online programme leading to a second diploma as a teacher of Russian as a Foreign Language (RFL) is being implemented jointly with Saint Petersburg State University. “It is a demanding programme and not everyone completes it, but there have been successful experiences,” - noted Tatyana Shlychkova.

In addition to traditional festivals and professional development courses, the Executive Director highlighted scientific and practical conferences, where specialists in Russian philology from various countries exchange experience and raise long-standing concerns. In response to this demand, the Foundation will hold five regional conferences in 2026: in Central Asia, Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Europe. These events are part of the preparation for the Foundation’s anniversary and the Russkiy Mir Assembly in 2027. Such “cluster” meetings, as Shlychkova called them, make it possible to discuss specific issues of translation and methodology, and subsequently to incorporate the best solutions into the programme of the main annual event.

Grant programme: criteria, experts and common mistakes

A question concerning the principles of project support was raised during the broadcast. Tatyana Shlychkova explained the process in detail. Firstly, it is essential to distinguish clearly between two categories: “promotion of the Russian language” (educational) and “cultural and humanitarian”. Choosing the wrong category leads to a lowering of the experts' assessment. Secondly, the experts are independent - they do not work for the Foundation. The decision to support a project is based on their rating and is then approved by the Board, which also does not include Foundation staff. Thirdly, the most common problem is an unrealistic estimate. “A project costing 10–12 million roubles, given that our usual grant ranges from 200,000 to 1.3 million, is simply unrealistic. Even with a high rating, it will not be approved,” - notified Tatyana Shlychkova. Fourthly, the Foundation does not fund the purchase of equipment nor the ongoing statutory activities of organisations, but it may cover the cost of renting premises, hiring equipment, travel, accommodation, and logistics.

One of the questions came from Colombia. It was asked whether it would be possible to invite musicians who play Russian folk instruments. Tatyana Shlychkova explained that the “Rising Stars” project, which the Foundation implements jointly with the Moscow State Tchaikovsky Conservatory, has already visited Colombia twice. These are royalty-free tours featuring young talents: the Foundation covers travel expenses, while the embassy assists with venues and accommodation. According to the Executive Director, the Gnesin Academy with its Department of Folk Instruments will join the project from next year. “One can perform anything on the balalaika or domra - from Russian folk music to Khachaturian or a Chopin waltz. If you close your eyes, you won’t be able to tell the difference between a symphony orchestra and our ensemble,” - she said, citing the Osipov State Russian Folk Orchestra as an example. Colombia will once again be included in the tour schedule in 2027 if the embassy submits a request.

The hour-and-a-half live broadcast clearly demonstrated that the Russkiy Mir Foundation is undergoing a systemic transformation. It is moving away from simply supplying books and issuing grants towards becoming an intellectual and cultural hub operating on the principles of “smart power”. The translation of content into major world languages, the Kostomarov Prize for foreign Russian studies scholars, internships for translators, visiting sessions by professors, regional conferences, and the «Rising Stars» project - all of these initiatives demonstrate the organisation’s evolution and its ability to adapt to new realities. Sanctions and Russophobia have not eliminated the demand for Russian culture. They have merely changed the logistics and forms of engagement. “Whatever the relations between official authorities may be, peoples must have the opportunity to learn new things and draw their own conclusions,” - said Tatyana Shlychkova in conclusion.

The next live broadcast is scheduled for the summer.

Vasily Andreyevich Tropinin, whose 250th anniversary we are marking this year, was a unique artist. Born a serf, he gained his freedom only at the age of 47, by which time he had long been famous. His life was a constant struggle - for the right to study, the right to paint, and finally, for freedom in the truest sense of the word. Tropinin was called a “dressing-gown portraitist” for his love of depicting people in casual home attire. He was compared to Greuze, on account of the distinctive colouring of his canvases, even to Titian. for devoting all his attention to the inner world of his characters. His portrait of Pushkin, the most natural and intimate one, is known to us all.

A serf artist

According to the recollections of contemporaries, anyone who admired Tropinin’s works was charmed by him upon meeting him in person. However, upon learning that he was a serf, they were invariably shocked. Fate showed the artist no favours. Vasily Tropinin was born in 1776 in Novgorod Governorate into a family of serfs. Although his father received his freedom for faithful service, his wife and children remained in bondage. Thanks to his father, the boy completed his education at the public school in Novgorod, where he developed a particular love for drawing among all his subjects.

When Tropinin turned seventeen, his family came under the ownership of the military commander Irakly Ivanovich Morkov. The profession was reflected both in the appearance and in the character of the new landowner. Count Morkov heard, from all sides, requests and even demands to grant freedom to the promising artist, but all to no avail.

One day, at Morkov’s house, Prince Dmitriev won a large sum of money from the host at cards. To everyone’s surprise, he offered to forgive the debt in exchange for Tropinin’s freedom. In response, Morkov silently laid out the lost money. On another occasion, a foreign guest greatly admired the artist’s works, but soon saw Vasily Andreyevich serving guests at the table in livery. The scene appeared so awkward that Morkov relieved Tropinin of his duties as a footman, yet still did not grant him his freedom.

One example of the general’s obstinacy was his decision to send Tropinin to study in St Petersburg. However, it was not for the study of painting: the Count intended to make of Tropinin a skilled confectioner, one who would not merely bake cakes but also decorate them with elaborate figurines.

Vasily pursued his studies in St Petersburg under the supervision of his master's brother, Alexey Ivanovich. Tropinin began secretly attending private painting lessons. When Alexei Ivanovich saw his works, he was astonished. He persuaded Irakly Ivanovich to allow the young serf to the Imperial Academy of Arts. Serfs were permitted to study there only as fee-paying external listeners, and Alexei Ivanovich offered to cover the cost of his education. Thus, Tropinin gained the opportunity to study lawfully at the Academy of Arts. His mentor became the renowned portrait painter Stepan Semyonovich Shchukin. For a time, Vasily even lived in his Academy apartment, helping to grind pigments and prepare canvases while observing the teacher at work.

At the Academy, Tropinin quickly began to distinguish himself: he won the Academy competitions twice. At the exhibition of 1804, his painting “Boy with Dead Goldfinch”, created in the manner of the then-popular French sentimentalist Jean-Baptiste Greuze, attracted the attention of Empress Maria Feodorovna herself. As a result, Tropinin acquired the nickname “the Russian Greuze.”

The President of the Academy, Count Alexander Sergeyevich Stroganov, promised to procure freedom for the talented student. The professor of painting, Shchukin, praised his student’s works to Count Morkov, hoping that he would release the artist. The reaction, however, was quite the opposite. Morkov recalled Vasily from St Petersburg that very year. It seems he had finally grasped the true worth of his serf and then made a purely strategic move – he sent the artist to his new estate in Ukraine in order to conceal him from high-ranking figures.

Read also: Dmitry Levitsky: how the son of a Ukrainian priest became Russia’s leading portrait painter

A creative rise in Kukavka

A new chapter of life began: Vasily Andreyevich found himself in the remote village of Kukavka in the Vinnytsia region. Only his remarkable optimism prevented him from breaking down: deprived of the opportunity to study and torn away from his usual surroundings, he was exiled to the countryside, where he was reminded of his serf's yoke. Yet Tropinin proved steadfast – he continued to paint.

Recalling his life in Kukavka, Tropinin said: “I studied little at the Academy, but I learned in Little Russia: there I painted from nature without rest… and these works of mine seem to be the best I have painted so far.”

Another highly important event also took place in Kukavka: the artist met his future wife, Anna Katina. The charming young woman was a free settler, but by marrying a serf she automatically forfeited that status. The couple were married in a church built to the design of… Vasily Tropinin himself. Morkov had good reason to keep him: at his master’s request, Tropinin first designed and then decorated this very church.

The Tropinins’ family life flowed in love and harmony. Vasily Andreyevich continued to paint portraits – of peasants, Ukrainian girls, and also produced copies of works by well-known masters for Morkov.

Art historians believe that the portrait of Anna was begun before the wedding (with her head uncovered and adorned with a ribbon) and completed after the nuptials, as married women were required to wear a cap. In the same year, 1809, the couple’s son Arseny was born. Vasily Andreyevich returned to his image more than once, and the portrait of the boy at around nine years old is considered one of the finest child portraits in Russian art. Both portraits are now held by the Tretyakov Gallery.

The War of 1812 and the move to Moscow

The Patriotic War of 1812 brought changes to many people’s lives. General Morkov, already in retirement, was once more called up for service and appointed commander of the Moscow People’s Militia. Having received orders from Alexander I, Morkov left his estate, entrusting all matters of property to Tropinin. It became clear that he was not only a gifted artist, but also a capable manager.

While his master was fighting at Borodino alongside his sons, Tropinin was obliged to carry out a difficult removal to Moscow, together with an enormous baggage train of the master's possessions and family valuables. Vasily arrived in Moscow when Napoleon had already left the city, and he found himself among the first to enter the city after the conflagration. The spectacle was a sorrowful one. The manor house had burned down, and with it, every one of the artist's pictures.

Yet even here Tropinin did not become discouraged,but instead he set about building a new house. Moscow was gradually being rebuilt, and soldiers and militiamen were returning. Morkov and his sons came back to the city in the summer of 1813. By the time of their return, a new house had been erected on the site of the ashes through the efforts of the serf Tropinin.

A blessing in disguise: the artist’s talent proved to be especially in demand in a Moscow that was being built anew. Many people had lost their family portraits in the fire, and for this reason Vasily Andreyevich was given a large, light- filled room in the new mansion to serve as a studio. The first work to appear was a grand family portrait of the Morkovs, which greatly impressed all visitors. Yet, if one looks more closely, it is one of the artist's most awkward paintings in terms of composition and pose. A sense of artificial ease seems almost to hang in the air among the women of the family in their white dresses, and a certain tension can be felt between the figures.

Rumours of a remarkable portrait painter spread rapidly throughout Moscow. In the journal Otechestvennye zapiski (Notes of the Fatherland), one could read: “Tropinin, a serf of Count Morkov. He likewise studied at the Academy of Arts and possesses a felicitous gift and inclination for painting. His colouring resembles that of Titian.”

Vasily Andreyevich produced commissioned portraits for members of the nobility, the merchantry, and the bohemian set, while at the same time continuing to paint household servants and peasants. The artist often depicted his subjects in simple domestic dress, and at times in more formal attire: in relaxed, natural poses, most often with a kindly expression. His sitters felt at ease, and in Tropinin’s portraits we see what became central to nineteenth-century portraiture – naturalness. In the twentieth century, this role was largely taken over by photography.

Morkov valued his protégé: he permitted him to paint to commission and provided him with a studio, yet he refused until the very last to grant the requests for his freedom. In the end, the Count was compelled to grant Tropinin his freedom in 1823, at Easter, for he was beginning to lose his own authority. Yet even this step the master did not take with an open heart: he did not grant freedom to Tropinin's family, hoping thereby to keep the artist by his side. The Count offered him the continued use of a room in his house and of the studio, and promised to procure a post for him in the military department. But here the ever-obliging Tropinin politely declined and took up residence in a rented flat in a house on the corner of Lenivka and Volkhonka. His wife and son were to remain serfs for another five long years...

Academician of portrait painting

In order to secure his status as an artist officially, Tropinin turned for help to his former teacher, Shchukin. The latter assisted in submitting his works to the Academy of Arts, to which Tropinin sent three canvases: The Lace-Maker, The Old Beggar, and Portrait of Yegor Osipovich Skotnikov. Thereafter, in accordance with the regulations, he painted a portrait of a member of the Academy's council – Professor Karl Alexandrovich Leberecht – travelling to St Petersburg expressly for the purpose. After this, Tropinin at last received the title of Academician of Portrait Painting.

The painting The Lace-Maker was received with particular rapture and brought Tropinin renown as a master of female images. The publisher and journalist Pavel Svinin wrote: “Both connoisseurs and laymen alike are delighted when looking at the picture, which truly unites all the beauties of the painter's art: the pleasing touch of the brush, the correct and felicitous lighting, the clear, natural colouring; what is more, this portrait reveals the very soul of the beauty and that sly, inquiring glance which she has cast upon someone who has entered the room at that very moment.”

Contemporaries also compared The Lace-maker with Poor Liza, the heroine of Karamzin’s story. The artist meticulously depicts every detail of the lacemaking process: bobbins, needles, scissors, and the linen falling in soft folds with embroidery at the edge. Yet we cannot tear our eyes away from her face. The young woman’s entire appearance is illuminated not only by sunlight, but also by a slightly sly look. It seems that this scrupulous work is not a burdensome daily chore, but rather a pleasant pastime. “Some accuse me of making almost all my sitters’ smile. But I do not invent, I do not fabricate these smiles; I paint them from nature. Who, in life, is fond of looking upon angry, sullen faces?” said Vasily Andreyevich.

The Lace-maker became so popular that Tropinin painted seven copies of it. He continued to explore the theme of women’s handiwork in several other paintings with similar subjects. The theme of the female portrait remained with him throughout his life: in 1841 he painted Women in the Window, and in 1850 – A girl with a pot of roses.

Pushkin himself

In 1827, in a house on Lenivka Street, the famous portrait of Alexander Pushkin was painted. Alexander Sergeyevich came in person and posed for the artist. The poet appears in Tropinin’s favourite manner: in domestic attire. Nevertheless, his image is deeply romantic: he stands with a straight posture, a white collar, and a scarf casually tied around the neck. The poet’s thoughtful gaze is directed to the side; he is immersed in himself.It is noteworthy that several attempts were made to replicate the portrait: in 1827, the literary salon owner Avdotya Yelagina executed a copy on fabric for the poet's friend Sergey Sobolevsky. In 1913, Ilya Repin copied the canvas, and today it is held in Prague.

That same year, a completely different portrait of the great poet was painted by Orest Kiprensky. While Tropinin depicts Alexander Sergeyevich in a relaxed, open pose, surrounded by the warm atmosphere of everyday Moscow life, Kiprensky presents Pushkin as a refined European. Against the background of the northern capital, the poet stands with his arms crossed over his chest, his pensive gaze directed into the distance.

Around the same period, Tropinin painted portraits of the artist Karl Bryullov, the singer Lyubov Makovskaya (mother of the painters Vladimir and Konstantin Makovsky), colonel and collector, and his wife Natalya Alexandrovna, daughter of Suvorov... Contemporaries used to say that Tropinin had painted the whole of Moscow.

In 1844, at the age of 68, Tropinin painted his self-portrait against a window with a view of the Kremlin, and repeated it at the age of seventy, as though summing up his creative life. Characteristically, he depicted himself in a domestic manner: dressed in a dressing-gown. The view of the Kremlin behind him is highly symbolic: this modest man had achieved a great deal. He deliberately chose a difficult frontal composition against the light. Tropinin looks down at us through his spectacles – calmly and wisely. With palette and brushes in his hands, he emphasises his devotion to art, while the centre of Moscow behind him represents the city where he had travelled the hard path through hardship to the stars.

Vasily Rozanov is little known beyond Russia, yet his influence on Russian philosophy and literature is extraordinarily profound. Some of his contemporaries despised him for his lack of ideology and the physical nature of his style, while others called him a genius but no one remained indifferent to him. On 2nd May, the 170th anniversary of the birth of the original thinker was marked, a man whom many believed had foreseen the future.

Rozanov: pro et contra

Vasily Vasilyevich Rozanov was born in 1856 in the town of Vetluga, in the Kostroma Governorate, into the family of an official in the Forestry Department. His childhood was a difficult one: the large family lived in poverty, and his parents died early. In fact, his upbringing was undertaken by his elder brother Nikolai and his brother’s wife. Vasily studied at the Simbirsk Gymnasium, where Nikolai taught, and later continued his education in Nizhny Novgorod. At the age of twenty-two, the young man entered the Faculty of History and Philology at Moscow State University, where he attended lectures by Vladimir Solovyov, Vasily Klyuchevsky, and Fyodor Korsh, and also began writing his first philosophical works. He was passionately interested in literature, particularly in the works of Fyodor Dostoevsky.

After completing his studies, Vasily Rozanov married a controversial figure of the era – Apollinaria Suslova, the former lover of Fyodor Dostoevsky, who was considerably older than Rozanov. The marriage proved an unhappy one: Suslova left the writer, yet at the same time refused to grant him a divorce. The true companion of the writer‘s life became Varvara Butyagina (née Rudneva). They were secretly married in 189: the priest agreed to violate church regulations. Rozanov’s five children were unable to bear his surname and were considered illegitimate because the Church did not recognise the marriage.

During his lifetime, Rozanov was widely regarded as a scandalous figure. He quarrelled and even fought with others, was challenged to duels, and was criticized in the press. His contemporaries were sharply divided in their judgements. Leonid Andreyev, in a letter to Maxim Gorky, described Rozanov as 'a mangy dog hopelessly lost in swinishnessbestiality'. Rozanov’s close friend, who repeatedly offered support to him and his family, Father Pavel Florensky, once remarked: 'Rozanov is like a jellyfish, shimmering with all the colours of the rainbow while in the water. But pull it onto dry land – and there is nothing but slime.' Also noteworthy is the assessment of Nikolay Berdyaev, who acknowledged in Rozanov 'a writer of great gift and great vital significance', yet at the same time observed: 'The genius physiology of Rozanov's writings is staggering in its lack of principle, its unscrupulousness, its indifference to good and evil, its faithlessness, its complete absence of moral character and spiritual steadfastness.'

The polarisation of public thought is a phenomenon characteristic not only of Russia, but of any country; both then and now, it has been entirely commonplace: left and right, Westernisers and Slavophiles, traditionalists and liberals – the list could go on endlessly. Only a few individuals are capable of existing on both sides of such a divide, and Vasily Rozanov was one of them. He regularly published in both the conservative newspaper Novoye Vremya and the liberal Russkoye Slovo. Incidentally, this daily work on short articles accustomed him to the brief, aphoristic form that would later find expression in his book Solitaria (Uedinyonnoye).

Naturally, he was often reproached for ideological spinelessness. Reflecting on the philosopher’s extraordinary admiration for Fyodor Dostoevsky, Nikolai Berdyaev believed that Rozanov resembled Dostoevsky’s own characters: 'Within him was the whole diversity of the Karamazovs. There was the lust of Fyodor Pavlovich, the passion and fire of Dmitry, the intellect and reason of Ivan, the prayerfulness and religiosity of Alyosha – and the baseness of Smerdyakov as well. Everything was fused together in this man. And yet he himself was such a little red-haired, frail, inconspicuous figure. But all of that was combined within him.'

Our contemporary, Alexey Varlamov, the author of a biography of Rozanov, has observed that studies of the philosopher are every bit as contradictory as his own creative work. Therefore, anyone studying Rozanov should be prepared for the fact that each new author sees him in his own way, often in complete opposition to the previous one. Rozanov himself wrote of his own nature: 'My soul is woven from sadness, filth, and tenderness.'

Literary Legacy: from philosophical criticism to the genre of the “solitary”

Rozanov’s literary legacy paradoxically combines academic erudition with intimate candour. And, of course, he was a superb stylist of the Russian language; his talent bordered on genius. True renown was brought to him by his study The Legend of the Grand Inquisitor of F. M. Dostoevsky (1891), which opened new horizons in the interpretation of The Brothers Karamazov and became one of the first examples of Russian philosophical criticism.

Yet before he began to write Fallen Leaves, he travelled the long road of an academic philosopher. His debut book, the treatise On Understanding (1886), met with no success. It was a monumental work in which he attempted to construct a universal science concerning the limits and nature of the human mind. The book failed, but it was precisely this failure that later compelled him to abandon scholastic heaviness and discover his own intimate, 'domestic' literary genre.

The central themes of Vasily Rozanov emerged through his disputes with the Church and society. The questions of sex, the family, and the birth of children became fundamental to his thought. In the two-volume work „The Family Question in Russia“ (1903), he fell upon on Christian asceticism and its indifference towards the 'warm world' of the family. He defended the right to divorce and condemned the stigma of illegitimacy. Around the same time appeared the collections Religion and Culture (1899) and Nature and History (1900), in which he attempted to reconcile a pagan love of life with the religious quest. These books earned him the reputation of a 'Russian Nietzsche' in the eyes of some, and of a heretic in the eyes of others. IIt was from this agonising attempt to defend the 'sanctity of the flesh' against 'soulless dogmas' that there grew that strain of anguished intensity which the reader will find in his principal diaries. Exhausted by scholastic heaviness and by misunderstanding, Rozanov created a genre which scholars would later call the 'solitary' style, after the title of his most important book.

Solitaria (Uedinyonnoye, 1911–1912) is the best introduction to Rozanov’s distinctive manner of writing. It is neither a treatise nor a diary, but a collection of fragments: 'exclamations, sighs, half-thoughts, half-feelings'. As Rozanov himself explained: 'The wind rustles at midnight and carries away leaves… So life tears from the soul exclamations and sighs… which have come directly from the soul, without revision, without purpose, without intention.' He conducts a dialogue with himself, laying bare his peculiarities and weaknesses, thereby creating a striking sense of intimate trust.

Vasily Rozanov anticipated the age of blogs: brief emotional notes “about oneself”, an address to the reader as to a friend, and the blending of the intimate with the public. He rejected the role of the 'great writer' and revealed a living, often unpleasant human being with all his 'unpolished' thoughts. In Solitaria there is no plot – only a stream of fragments, where a thought newly born is more precious than one that has been polished smooth.

If Solitaria is a bold experiment, then Fallen Leaves represents the method carried to its absolute limit. The fragments become longer; scenes with dialogue, descriptions of everyday life, and arguments with himself begin to appear. Irony and shock value gradually disappear, giving way to domestic horror: he writes even more openly about his paralysed wife, poverty, and fear of death, no longer looking back at the reader.

The reaction was staggering. Zinaida Gippius wrote that the book ought to be banned – and Solitaria was indeed seized. Marina Tsvetaeva, then still unknown, wrote to Rozanov: 'I have read nothing else of yours, but you are a genius.' The book also appealed to Maxim Gorky. In this way, it united people who otherwise had absolutely nothing in common.

'The Apocalypse of Our Time'

If Solitaria and Fallen Leaves were diaries turned inward, then The Apocalypse of Our Time was an appeal addressed to a collapsing world. The book was written in 1917–1918, when Vasily Rozanov and his family fled starving Petrograd for Sergiyev Posad. Conditions were harsh: there was no heating, and food was scarce. According to his daughter’s recollections, 'empty cabbage soup was boiled', and there was barely any bread. Varvara Dmitrievna had been partially paralysed for several years, and her condition was only getting worse. Rozanov had lost a lot of weight and become weak.

One cold November day, while returning from the bathhouse, Rozanov fell into the snow and lay for a long time. From that moment on, he never got up again. He dictated desperate letters pleading for help, including one to Maxim Gorky: 'The flat is unheated, there is no firewood; my daughters stare at the last piece of sugar beside the cold samovar… I am perishing, perishing, perishing…' Help arrived, but too late – Rozanov passed away two days later. It was neither the first nor the last tragedy to strike the family. Rozanov’s only son, Vasily, died of Spanish influenza in 1918, while his daughter Vera took her own life out of starvation in 1919. His daughter Varvara survived the chaos of the Russian Civil War, but her life also ended tragically: she died of dystrophy in a forced labour camp in 1943. Varvara Dmitrievna herself outlived her husband by four years…

The Apocalypse' was written in a fragmentary and frantic manner and this is no longer speculation or reflection, but the dying testimony of a man who sees his family, state and millennia‑old civilisation collapsing. Rozanov is merciless towards the Russian intelligentsia and literature, which, in his view, had been undermining the foundations for decades: 'In terms of content, Russian literature is such a vile thing, such a mixture of shamelessness and insolence as no other literature.' He also blames Christianity: it declared the family, birth, sex and everyday life to be sinful, and thereby 'weakened the universe'. Experiencing the collapse of Russia as the death of a 'warm, cosy home', he sees the cause in the fact that people have unlearned to value the bodily basis of existence.

One of the book’s climactic moments reads: 'Rus vanished in two days… There is no Kingdom left, no Church, no army, and no working class. So what is left? Strangely enough – literally nothing.' On socialism he wrote: 'Socialism in the future does not frighten me much. It simply cannot thrive here in its pure form! (…) When it comes to implementing it through disciplinary measures (up to terror), the Russian person will very soon develop an immunity, which will manifest itself as sloppiness, lethargy, and flabbiness.'

To his contemporaries, Rozanov often seemed a man 'not of this world' – his ideas were called strange, his writing style deemed insane, and the philosopher himself was considered to be 'beyond' the familiar. Meanwhile, he created a genre that became the norm a century later: short intimate notes, an equal dialogue with the reader, and a rejection of the mentor’s role. He foresaw that the future belonged to living, 'unpolished' thought, not to polished treatises. He himself wrote in The Solitary: 'A thought is only interesting when it is born. Once born, it immediately grows old and must die' – and today, in the age of blogs and social media, this formula sounds like a prophecy.