Sergey Bulgakov: How a Marxist became an Orthodox theologian

Sergey Nikolayevich Bulgakov is now regarded by scholars as one of the key figures of the Russian religious and philosophical renaissance of the twentieth century. He had an enormous influence on the development of Orthodox theology, the philosophy of culture and Christian social thought. Nikolai Berdyaev called Bulgakov “one of the most remarkable Russian men of our time”. On 28th July 2026, the 155th anniversary of the thinker’s birth was marked.

A vivid and comprehensive description of Bulgakov was given by our contemporary, philosopher, physicist and mathematician Sergei Khoruzhy: “Bulgakov's creative work is the purest example of the thought of the Russian renaissance. In it, as in a mirror, there appears the inimitable visage of this one-of-a-kind period - with its spiritual quests and metamorphoses, its confusions and conversions, its discipleship and eclecticism in matters of strict philosophy, and its cult of Dostoevsky and Vladimir Solovyov as forerunners and teachers... In Russian philosophy, Bulgakov is one of the most Russian of philosophers, and, as he himself penetratingly reveals in his Autobiographical Notes, all the deepest intuitions of his creative work were breathed into him as early as childhood... And, when speaking of Bulgakov, one must also say that his role and significance are considerably broader than the role and significance of his creative work alone. Alongside that work, there was also his public activity, which he always directed towards the most pressing problems of Russia's spiritual life: organising symposia by which later generations now measure the ideological path of the Russian intelligentsia; taking part in the Church Council that profoundly altered the order of Russian Orthodoxy; and, finally, standing at the head of the Paris Theological Institute, which became the largest centre of Russian religious-philosophical creativity.”

Sergey Nikolayevich Bulgakov was born on 28th July 1871 in the town of Livny in the Oryol Governorate. His father was a village priest, and his childhood was shaped by strict religious upbringing. At the age of thirteen, he entered a theological seminary, but it was there that he began to experience a religious crisis. His period of disbelief, which lasted until the age of thirty, was partly caused by what he later called the “enforced piety” of the seminary. “I embraced nihilism without a struggle,”- he later said of his youthful outlook. Bulgakov left the seminary and transferred to a local secondary school, where one of his teachers was none other than Vasily Rozanov.

In 1894, Bulgakov completed his studies at the Faculty of Law of Moscow University. After passing his master’s examination, he began teaching political economy at the Imperial Moscow Technical School. In 1897, his first major work, On Markets under Capitalist Production, was published. In it, the author argued that developing Russian capitalism did not depend on foreign markets and criticised the Narodniki's ideas about the resilience of the peasant commune in the face of capitalism.

In 1898, Sergey Nikolayevich married Elena Ivanovna Tokmakova, the daughter of a Crimean tea merchant and philanthropist. Soon afterwards, the couple travelled to Europe on an academic trip, where Bulgakov met leading representatives of European social democracy, including Karl Kautsky, August Bebel, and Victor Adler. In Geneva, he also met Georgi Plekhanov. After returning to Russia, he joined the circle of “Legal Marxists”, which included Pyotr Struve, Mikhail Tugan-Baranovsky, and other Russian economists.

The culmination of this period was his fundamental work, which also served as his master’s thesis in political economy, Capitalism and Agriculture. In it, Bulgakov criticised the Marxist thesis that small-scale peasant farming would inevitably be displaced by large-scale capitalist production. He argued for the resilience of small-scale agriculture and emphasised the complexity of economic processes in the agricultural sector. At the beginning of 1901, Bulgakov was appointed an extraordinary professor of political economy at Kyiv Polytechnic Institute, while simultaneously becoming a privat-docent at Saint Vladimir University in Kyiv. There he taught courses in political economy, the history of economic thought, agricultural economics and the theory of capitalism. His lectures were distinguished by an effort to combine rigorous scientific analysis with a philosophical understanding of economic life.

Christian Socialism

In 1905, together with Nikolai Berdyaev and Dmitry Zhukovsky, Bulgakov took part in founding the journal Voprosy Zhizni (Questions of Life), which became one of the notable phenomena of Russia’s intellectual life at the beginning of the twentieth century. The publication brought together philosophers, theologians and cultural figures. Its editors and publishers – literary critic and publicist Dmitry Filosofov, one of the organisers of the World of Art movement, and Nikolai Lossky, a prominent representative of the Russian religious-philosophical school – sought to examine social problems through the lens of Christian ethics and philosophical idealism.

The journal existed for only one year and published twelve issues, yet it secured a significant place in Russia’s cultural history. Within the pages of the journal, questions of religion, culture, morality, and the historical path of Russia were discussed, and the works of leading figures of the Silver Age were published. While working on the journal, Bulgakov continued to seek a new foundation for social thought. In his publications, he strove to show that the development of society cannot be explained by economic processes or political struggle alone. He advocated the idea of a morally responsible society in which social transformations should be grounded in spiritual values. In Christian socialism, the philosopher saw a synthesis of God-manhood (Bogochelovechestvo), in which Christianity provided the spiritual purpose and harmony, while socialism offered a practical path towards Christian truth and social equality.

In 1906, Bulgakov moved to Moscow, where he headed the Department of Political Economy at the Moscow Commercial Institute. As in Kyiv, he did not limit himself to purely economic analysis, viewing economic activity as an expression of human creativity, freedom and responsibility. During this period, he was also active as a publicist, addressing questions of culture, politics, education and the spiritual condition of society.

At the same time, the thinker became involved in the country’s political life. In 1907, he was elected a deputy to the Second State Duma from Oryol Governorate. In his parliamentary work, he was primarily concerned with public education, social policy, freedom of conscience, and relations between the state and society. He regarded his political activity as part of a broader effort to bring about the moral transformation of public life.

“Believe to the point of absurdity”

Sergei Bulgakov's philosophical conversion did not take place at once, but came about through a recognition of the spiritual emptiness of materialist theories. His book “The Philosophy of Economy” (1912) became a turning point: economic activity was presented not as a struggle for material resources, but as humanity’s creative participation in the transformation of the world. In his debate with Marxism, Bulgakov argued that the economy is determined not only by material interests, but also by spiritual and cultural values. His works also saw the first development of his teaching on Divine Sophia, which connects God, humanity, and the cosmos.

The article Heroism and Asceticism, published in the collection Vekhi (Landmarks, 1909), expressed Bulgakov’s sharp break with the revolutionary tradition of the Russian intelligentsia. He contrasted the heroism of rebellion with the idea of spiritual struggle and inner transformation. The culmination of his pre-revolutionary work was The Unfading Light (1917), in which the philosopher presented a comprehensive system of religious and philosophical thought, summarizing his transition from Marxism to Orthodoxy.

One of the philosopher’s strongest impressions was a 1914 production of Dostoevsky’s “Demons” at the Moscow Art Theatre. He devoted an article entitled Russian Tragedy to the performance, calling Dostoevsky a great tragedian and arguing that the novel should not be viewed simply as a political pamphlet, as was common at the time. He described the novel as “symbolic art, its symbolism being only externally disguised by a domestic veneer... In its roots, the human soul reaches down into another, divine world, and Dostoevsky's realism therefore extends not only over the human world, but over the divine world as well.“

Bulgakov experienced the October Revolution as the end not only of Russia, but also of an entire period of Christian history. He believed that a new era of spiritual questions had arrived, concerning the meaning of faith in a world where “the red boor” and disbelief were triumphant. The Revolution pushed Bulgakov towards what many considered a reckless decision: he became an Orthodox priest. This step was the result of many years of religious searching: from childhood faith, through his fascination with Marxism and philosophical reflection, to a conscious return to religion: “Believe to the point of absurdity – that is the postulate of faith.” In July 1918, he left Moscow and travelled through Kyiv to Crimea, where he spent the next two years teaching political economy and theology at Taurida University. He was dismissed after the Bolsheviks came to power in Crimea.

The Civil War and the establishment of Soviet rule made it impossible for Bulgakov to remain in Russia. On 27th December 1922, Bulgakov and his family were expelled from Soviet Russia aboard the Italian ship Jeanne, together with the wave of Russian intellectuals whose mass deportation became known collectively as the “Philosophers’ Ships.” The expulsion became one of the most striking symbols of the break between Soviet authorities and pre-revolutionary Russian culture.

After Constantinople and then Prague, the philosopher arrived in Paris in 1925. From then on, the city became the centre of Sergey Bulgakov’s activities. He was one of the key organisers of the St Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute and remained one of its leading lecturers and a professor of dogmatic theology for almost twenty years. It was during this period that his talent as a theologian and pedagogue revealed itself in full, and the Institute itself became one of the chief centres of Russian thought in emigration. In his monumental trilogy “The Lamb of God” (1933), “The Comforter” (1936), and “The Bride of the Lamb” (1945), Bulgakov developed his teaching on Sophia as the principle connecting divine purpose with human creativity.

Bulgakov became an acknowledged leader of the Russian religious renaissance in emigration; his voice resounded at international conferences, affirming the greatness of Orthodox thought. Even throat cancer, diagnosed in 1939 and which deprived him of his voice, did not break his spirit. He learned to speak without vocal cords, continued celebrating the liturgy, giving lectures and services, and writing. In the summer of 1944, during the Second World War and the German occupation of France, Sergey Bulgakov passed away in Paris. He was buried at the Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Cemetery.

Bulgakov and the religious thinkers of the Silver Age

An important role in Bulgakov’s spiritual development was played by his participation in the Religious-Philosophical Society in Memory of Vladimir Solovyov in Moscow, which became one of the major centres of intellectual exchange among the Russian intelligentsia. Thinkers from very different intellectual traditions gathered there, including Nikolai Berdyaev, Pavel Florensky, Evgeny Trubetskoy, Semyon Frank, and Vasily Ern. For Bulgakov, the society was not merely a platform for philosophical dialogue but also part of a broader search for a connection between faith, intellectual thought, and public life. It was during this period that his philosophical quest gradually took its final form and eventually led to the creation of his own religious and philosophical system.

A special place in Bulgakov’s life and work was occupied by his friendship with Pavel Florensky. They shared a desire to overcome the limitations of rationalism and materialistic thought by turning to the Orthodox tradition and Sophiology. Although Florensky and Bulgakov interpreted the nature of Sophia differently, both sought to reveal the profound unity of God, humanity, and the world. These ideas were developed in Bulgakov’s works, particularly “The Unfading Light” and “The Lamb of God”, while Florensky presented his understanding of Sophia in his famous work “The Pillar and Ground of the Truth” (1914). The spiritual closeness between the two thinkers was captured in Mikhail Nesterov’s famous painting “The Philosophers” (1917), which became a symbolic representation of Russian religious thought during the Silver Age. After the Revolution, their paths diverged. Bulgakov lived in Europe, while Florensky remained in the Soviet Union and continued his scientific work despite increasing persecution. His arrest in 1933 and subsequent death were a profound shock to Bulgakov.

Sergey Bulgakov and Lev Shestov shared a critical attitude towards materialism and positivism, but they differed in their understanding of the relationship between faith and reason. Shestov insisted on their tragic separation: in his view, faith is an irrational leap beyond the limits of logic. Bulgakov, by contrast, regarded reason as a gift from God and sought a harmonious synthesis of faith, philosophy, and culture. He developed a coherent system in which a world permeated by Sophia and Divine Wisdom possesses meaning and purpose. This difference also shaped their attitudes towards the legacy of Vladimir Solovyov. Bulgakov developed Solovyov’s ideas of all-unity, whereas Shestov rejected attempts to construct a religious system, believing that Solovyov had sacrificed living faith for abstract philosophical schemes.

Bulgakov’s relationship with Vasily Rozanov was even more complex. Bulgakov highly valued the depth of Rozanov’s reflections on religion, culture, and human nature, but he did not share his critical attitude towards the Church tradition.While Rozanov saw historical Christianity as a source of tension between the spiritual and earthly dimensions of human existence, Bulgakov, on the contrary, sought to demonstrate their inner unity through Orthodox theology and the doctrine of Sophia.

Bulgakov’s intellectual circle played a decisive role in his spiritual development. His dialogue with the leading thinkers of the Silver Age helped him formulate his own philosophical position, in which faith, culture, science, and creativity became different aspects of a single spiritual quest. These relationships were not merely personal. They formed part of a broader intellectual movement that profoundly influenced the development of Russian religious thought in the twentieth century. Sergey Bulgakov wrote many profound words throughout his life. If only one quotation were to be chosen, it might be this: “One can never be reconciled with oneself, and this irreconcilability is perhaps the highest dignity of a human being.”